Do you think that my former contacts are enjoying the temporary respite from all!
Question: Maybe THAT is why they all seem to be in kind and generous moods...
Hmmm...
Answers: Maybe THAT is why they all seem to be in kind and generous moods...
Hmmm...
nah...i'm sure they miss them.
Yes I do
yup
Probably so
maybe but we like them just fine
where's the kindness?
All I've got are violations and report happy answerers...
Not really!
<mutters beneath his breath, "What a GOOBER!>
Yes, you just might be on to something there!
You have been reported. Please read the guidelines.
Regards and such,
Wikipedia Reporter Man
Now enjoy these articles while you think about reforming your criminal ways:
Thanks to everyone who donated in the Wikimedia Foundation fundraiser! You can still make a contribution, or buy Wikimedia merchandise.
Wikipedia
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Wikipedia
Screenshot of Wikipedia's multilingual portal
URL http://www.wikipedia.org
Slogan The free encyclopedia that anyone can edit
Alexa rank 8[3]
Commercial? No
Type of site Online encyclopedia
Registration Optional
Available language(s) 236 active editions (253 in total)[1]
Owner Wikimedia Foundation
Created by Jimmy Wales, Larry Sanger[2]
Launched January 15, 2001
Current status work-in-progress
Wikipedia (IPA: /?w?k??pi?di?/, /?wi?ki?pi?di?/, /?w?ki?pi?di?/ or /?wi?ki?pe?di?/) (Audio (U.S.) (help·info)) is a multilingual, open content, free[4] encyclopedia project operated by the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation. Its name is a portmanteau of the words wiki (a type of collaborative website) and encyclopedia. Launched in 2001, it is the largest, fastest growing and most popular general reference work currently available on the Internet.[5][6]
As of December 2007, Wikipedia had approximately 9 ? million articles in 253 languages, comprising a combined total of over 1.41 billion words for all Wikipedias. The English Wikipedia edition passed the 2,000,000 article mark on September 9, 2007, and as of January 1, 2008 it had over 2,154,000 articles consisting of over 937,000,000 words.[1] Wikipedia's articles have been written collaboratively by volunteers around the world and the vast majority of them can be edited by anyone with access to the Internet. Having steadily risen in popularity since its inception,[3] it currently ranks among the top ten most-visited websites worldwide.[7]
Critics have questioned Wikipedia's reliability and accuracy, citing its open nature.[8] The criticism is centered on its susceptibility to vandalism, such as the insertion of profanities or random letters into articles, and the addition of spurious or unverified information;[9] uneven quality, systemic bias and inconsistencies;[10] and for favoring consensus over credentials in its editorial process.[11] Scholarly work suggests that vandalism is generally short-lived.[12][13]
In addition to being an encyclopedic reference, Wikipedia has received major media attention as an online source of breaking news as it is constantly updated.[14][15] When Time Magazine recognized "You" as their Person of the Year 2006, praising the accelerating success of on-line collaboration and interaction by millions of users around the world, Wikipedia was the first particular "Web 2.0" service mentioned, followed by YouTube and MySpace.[16]
Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Content and internal structure
3 Software and hardware
4 Language editions
5 Reliability and bias
6 Criticism
7 Cultural significance
8 Related projects
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
History
Main article: History of Wikipedia
Wikipedia originally developed from another encyclopedia project, Nupedia.Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed by a formal process. Nupedia was founded on March 9, 2000, under the ownership of Bomis, Inc, a web portal company. Its principal figures were Jimmy Wales, Bomis CEO, and Larry Sanger, editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. Nupedia was licensed initially under its own Nupedia Open Content License, switching to the GNU Free Documentation License before Wikipedia's founding at the urging of Richard Stallman.[17]
On January 10, 2001, Larry Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a "feeder" project for Nupedia.[18] Wikipedia was formally launched on January 15, 2001, as a single English-language edition at www.wikipedia.com,[19] and announced by Sanger on the Nupedia mailing list.[20] Wikipedia's policy of "neutral point-of-view"[21] was codified in its initial months, and was similar to Nupedia's earlier "nonbiased" policy. Otherwise, there were relatively few rules initially and Wikipedia operated independently of Nupedia.[22] Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and search engine indexing. It grew to approximately 20,000 articles, and 18 language editions, by the end of 2001. By late 2002 it had reached 26 language editions, 46 by the end of 2003, and 161 by the closing stages 2004.[23] Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the former's servers went down permanently in 2003, and its text was incorporated into Wikipedia.
Jimmy Wales
Larry SangerLarry Sanger and Jimmy Wales are the founders of Wikipedia.[2][24] Although Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia,[22] Sanger is usually credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal.[25]
Citing fears of commercial advertising and lack of control in a perceived English-centric Wikipedia, users of the Spanish Wikipedia forked from Wikipedia to create the Enciclopedia Libre in February 2002. Later that year, Wales announced that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and its website was moved to wikipedia.org. Various other projects have since forked from Wikipedia for editorial reasons. Wikinfo does not require neutral point of view and allows original research. New Wikipedia-inspired projects — such as Citizendium, Scholarpedia, Amapedia and Google's Knol — have been started to address perceived limitations of Wikipedia, such as its policies on peer review, original research and commercial advertising.
Graph of the article count for the English Wikipedia, from January 10, 2001, to September 9, 2007 (the date of the two-millionth article).As of December 2007, English Wikipedia had over 2 million articles, making it the largest encyclopedia ever assembled, eclipsing even the Yongle Encyclopedia (1407), which held the record for nearly 600 years.[26]
The Wikimedia Foundation was created from Wikipedia and Nupedia on June 20, 2003.[27] It applied to the United States Patent and Trademark Office to trademark Wikipedia? on September 17, 2004. The mark was granted registration status on January 10, 2006. Trademark protection was accorded by Japan on December 16, 2004, and in the European Union on January 20, 2005. Technically a service mark, the scope of the mark is for: "Provision of information in the field of general encyclopedic knowledge via the Internet". There are plans to license the usage of the Wikipedia trademark for some products, such as books or DVDs.[28] In October 2007 the foundation announced that it plans to move its headquarters from St. Petersburg, Florida, to San Francisco, California, in February 2008.[29]
The Wikimedia Foundation's 4th Quarter 2005 costs were $321,000 USD, with hardware making up almost 60% of the budget.[30] The Wikimedia Foundation currently relies primarily on private donations, and holds regular fundraisers;[31] the January 2007 fundraiser raised just over $1 million.[32]
Content and internal structure
Almost every article in Wikipedia may be edited anonymously or with a user account and changes are made available immediately, while only registered users may create a new article. All text in Wikipedia is covered by GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL), a copyleft license permitting the redistribution, creation of derivative works, and commercial use of content while authors retain copyright of their work. Wikipedia has been working on the switch to Creative Commons License because the GFDL, initially designed for software manuals, is not suitable for online reference works and because the two licenses are currently incompatible.[33] Some language editions, such as the English Wikipedia, include non-free image files under fair use doctrine.
Wikimania, an annual conference for users of Wikipedia and other projects operated by the Wikimedia Foundation.Unlike peer-reviewed encyclopedias such as Encyclop?dia Britannica, Wikipedia relies on the efforts of its community members, called Wikipedians,[34] to remove vandalism or identify problems such as violation of neutrality[35] and factual errors in its articles.[36] Since June 2006 vandalism-repair bots have also been in use.[13] Wikipedia's content policies[37] and sub-projects set up by contributors seek to address problems of accuracy.[38]
The community has a power structure.[39] While they are welcomed by the community,[40] authors new to Wikipedia are encouraged to read policies to help them learn the ways of Wikipedia.[41] Editors in good standing in the community can run for one of many of levels of volunteer stewardship, that begins with "administrator"[42] and goes up with "steward" and "bureaucrat".[43] Administrators, the largest group of privileged users (1,442 Wikipedians for the English edition on December 23, 2007), have the ability to delete pages, lock articles from being changed in case of vandalism or editorial disputes, and deter users from editing.
The "History" page attached to each article makes its complete editing history easily accessible.[41] Much of the coordination of the editing of Wikipedia takes place on the "Talk" pages associated with each individual article.[44]
Software and hardware
The operation of Wikipedia depends on MediaWiki, a custom-made, free and open source wiki software platform written in PHP and built upon the MySQL database. The software incorporates programming features such as a macro language, variables, a transclusion system for templates, and URL redirection. MediaWiki is licensed under the GNU General Public License and used by all Wikimedia projects, as well as many other wiki projects. Originally, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki written in Perl by Clifford Adams (Phase I), which initially required CamelCase for article hyperlinks; the present double bracket style was incorporated later. Starting in January 2002 (Phase II), Wikipedia began running on a PHP wiki engine with a MySQL database; this software was custom-made for Wikipedia by Magnus Manske. The Phase II software was repeatedly modified to accommodate the exponentially increasing demand. In July 2002 (Phase III), Wikipedia shifted to the third-generation software, MediaWiki, originally written by Lee Daniel Crocker.
Overview of system architecture, May 2006. See server layout diagrams on Meta-Wiki.Wikipedia runs on dedicated clusters of Linux servers in Florida and in two other locations.[45] Wikipedia employed a single server until 2004, when the server setup was expanded into a distributed multitier architecture. In January 2005, the project ran on 39 dedicated servers located in Florida. This configuration included a single master database server running MySQL, multiple slave database servers, 21 web servers running the Apache HTTP Server, and seven Squid cache servers. By September 2005, its server cluster had grown to around 100 servers: main servers in Tampa, Florida and the rest in Amsterdam and Seoul.
Wikipedia receives between 10,000 and 35,000 page requests per second, depending on time of day.[46] Page requests are first passed to a front-end layer of Squid caching servers. Requests that cannot be served from the Squid cache are sent to load-balancing servers running the Linux Virtual Server software, which in turn pass the request to one of the Apache web servers for page rendering from the database. The web servers deliver pages as requested, performing page rendering for all the language editions of Wikipedia. To increase speed further, rendered pages for anonymous users are cached in a distributed memory cache until invalidated, allowing page rendering to be skipped entirely for most common page accesses. Two larger clusters in the Netherlands and Korea now handle much of Wikipedia's traffic load.
Language editions
See also: List of Wikipedias
This section needs sources or references that appear in reliable, third-party publications. Primary sources and sources affiliated with the subject of this article are not sufficient for a Wikipedia article. Please include more appropriate citations from reliable sources, or discuss the issue on the talk page.
This article has been tagged since October 2007.
Contributors for English Wikipedia by country as of September 2006[47]There are currently 253 language editions of Wikipedia; of these, 15 have over 100,000 articles and 145 have over 1,000 articles.[1] The English subdomain (en.wikipedia.org) receives approximately 55% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages (Spanish: 17%, Japanese 4%, German: 4%, Polish: 3%, French: 3%, Portuguese: 2%).[3] As of December 2007, the top five language editions are (in order of article count) English, German, French, Polish and Japanese Wikipedias.[48]
Since Wikipedia is web-based and therefore worldwide, contributors of a same language edition may use different dialects or may come from different countries (as is the case for the English edition). These differences may lead to some conflicts over spelling differences, (e.g. color vs. colour)[49] or points of view.[50] Though the various language editions are held to global policies such as "neutral point of view," they diverge on some points of policy and practice, most notably on whether images that are not licensed freely may be used under a claim of fair use.[51][52][53]
Percentage of all Wikipedia articles in English (red) and top ten largest language editions (blue). As of November 2007, less than 25% of Wikipedia articles are in English.Wikipedia has been described as "an effort to create and distribute a free encyclopedia of the highest possible quality to every single person on the planet in their own language".[54] Though each language edition functions more or less independently, some efforts are made to supervise them all. They are coordinated in part by Meta-Wiki, the Wikimedia Foundation's wiki devoted to maintaining all of its projects (Wikipedia and others). For instance, Meta-Wiki provides important statistics on all language editions of Wikipedia and maintain a list of articles every Wikipedia should have. The list concerns basic content by subject: biography, history, geography, society, culture, science, technology, foodstuffs, and mathematics. As for the rest, it is not rare for articles strongly related to a particular language not to have counterparts in another edition. For example, articles about small towns in the United States might only be available in English.
Multilingual editors of sufficient fluency are encouraged to translate articles manually; automated translation of articles is explicitly disallowed.[55] Translated articles represent only a small portion of articles in most editions.[56] Articles available in more than one language may offer "InterWiki" links, usually in their left margin, which link to the counterpart articles in other editions. Images and other non-verbal media are shared among the various language editions through the Wikimedia Commons repository. Beyond translations, some multilingual efforts are also realized thanks to the Multilingual coordination.
Several language versions have published a selection of wikipedia articles on a DVD version. An English version[57] developed by Linterweb contains "1964 + articles".[58][59] The Polish version contains nearly 240000 articles.[60] There are also a few German versions.[61]
Reliability and bias
Main article: Reliability of Wikipedia
Wikipedia does not require that its contributors give their legal names or provide other information to establish their identity. A 2007 study by researchers from Dartmouth College found that anonymous and infrequent contributors to Wikipedia are as reliable a source of knowledge as those contributors who register with the site.[62] Although some contributors are authorities in their field, Wikipedia requires that even their contributions be supported by published and verifiable sources.
Wikipedia tries to address the problem of systemic bias, and to deal with zealous editors who seek to influence the presentation of an article in a biased way, by insisting on a neutral point of view.[63] The English-language Wikipedia has introduced an assessment scale against which the quality of articles is judged;[64] other editions have also adopted this. Roughly 1500 articles have passed a rigorous set of criteria to reach the highest rank, "featured article" status; such articles are intended to provide thorough, well-written coverage of their topic, supported by many references to peer-reviewed publications.[65]
In a 2003 study of Wikipedia as a community, economics Ph.D. student Andrea Ciffolilli argued that the low transaction costs of participating in wiki software create a catalyst for collaborative development, and that a "creative construction" approach encourages participation.[66]
In February 2007, an article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that some of the professors at Harvard University do include Wikipedia in their syllabus, but that there is a split in their perception of using Wikipedia.[67] In June 2007, former president of the American Library Association Michael Gorman condemned Wikipedia, along with Google,[68] stating that academics who endorse the use of Wikipedia are “the intel-lectual equivalent of a dietician who recommends a steady diet of Big Macs with everything,” He also said that “a generation of intellectual sluggards incapable of moving beyond the Internet” was being produced at universities. He complains that the web-based sources are discouraging students from learning from the more rare texts which are either found only on paper or are on subscription-only web sites. In the same article Jenny Fry (a research fellow at the Oxford Internet Institute) commented on the academics who cite Wikipedia that: “You cannot say children are intellectually lazy because they are using the Internet when academics are using search engines in their research,” she said. “The difference is that they have more experience of being critical about what is retrieved and whether it is authoritative. Children need to be told how to use the Internet in a critical and appropriate way.”[68]
Criticism
Main article: Criticism of Wikipedia
Wikipedia has been accused of exhibiting systemic bias and inconsistency;[8] critics argue that Wikipedia's open nature and a lack of proper sources for much of the information makes it unreliable.[69] Some commentators suggest that Wikipedia is usually reliable, but that it is not always clear how much.[11] The project's preference for consensus over credentials has been labeled "anti-elitism".[10] Editors of traditional reference works such as the Encyclop?dia Britannica have questioned the project's utility and status as an encyclopedia.[70] Many university lecturers discourage students from citing any encyclopedia in academic work, preferring primary sources;[71] some specifically prohibit Wikipedia citations.[72] Co-founder Jimmy Wales stresses that encyclopedias of any type are not usually appropriate as primary sources, and should not be relied upon as authoritative.[73] Technology writer Bill Thompson commented that the debate was possibly "symptomatic of much learning about information which is happening in society today."[74]
In order to improve reliability, some editors have called for "stable versions" of articles, or articles that have been reviewed by the community and locked from further editing – but these efforts have proven unsuccessful due to community disagreement and the fact that it would require a major software overhaul.[75][76] However a similar version is being tested on the German Wikipedia, and there is an expectation that some form of that system will make its way onto the English version at some future time.[77] Software created by Luca de Alfaro and colleagues at the University of California, Santa Cruz is now being tested that will assign "trust ratings" to individual Wikipedia contributors, with the intention that eventually only edits made by those who have established themselves as "trusted editors" will be made immediately visible.[78]
John Seigenthaler Sr. has described Wikipedia as "a flawed and irresponsible research tool."[79]Concerns have also been raised regarding the lack of accountability that results from users' anonymity,[80] and that it is vulnerable to vandalism and similar problems. In one particularly well-publicized incident, false information was introduced into the biography of John Seigenthaler, Sr. and remained undetected for four months.[79] Some critics claim that Wikipedia's open structure makes it an easy target for Internet trolls, advertisers, and those with an agenda to push.[81][41] The addition of political spin to articles by organizations including the U.S. House of Representatives and special interest groups[9] has been noted,[82] and organizations such as Microsoft have offered financial incentives to work on certain articles.[83] These issues have been parodied, notably by Stephen Colbert in The Colbert Report.[84]
Wikipedia's community has been described as "cult-like,"[85] although not always with entirely negative connotations,[86] and criticized for failing to accommodate inexperienced users.[87] While praising many aspects of Wikipedia, historian Roy Rosenzweig notes: "Overall, writing is the Achilles’ heel of Wikipedia. Committees rarely write well, and Wikipedia entries often have a choppy quality that results from the stringing together of sentences or paragraphs written by different people."[88]
In August 2007, a new website developed by computer science graduate student Virgil Griffith named WikiScanner made its public debut. WikiScanner traces the source of millions of changes made to Wikipedia by editors who are not logged in, and it revealed some interesting and controversial edits its first few days of use. Many of these edits came from corporations or sovereign government agencies about articles related to them, their personnel or their work, and were attempts to remove criticism.[89]
Wales called WikiScanner "a very clever idea," and said that he was considering some changes to Wikipedia to help visitors better understand what information is recorded about them. "When someone clicks on ‘edit,’ it would be interesting if we could say, ‘Hi, thank you for editing. We see you’re logged in from The New York Times. Keep in mind that we know that, and it’s public information,’" he said. "That might make them stop and think."[89]
Cultural significance
An xkcd strip entitled "Wikipedian Protestor."In addition to logistic growth in the number of its articles,[90] Wikipedia has steadily gained status as a general reference website since its inception in 2001.[91] As of December 2007, according to Alexa, Wikipedia was the eighth most visited website world-wide.[7] Of the top ten, Wikipedia is the only non-profit website. As of October 2006, Wikipedia was estimated to have a hypothetical market value of $580 million if it ran ads.[92] In April 2007 the Pew Internet and American Life project found that one third of US Internet users consulted Wikipedia.[93] The growth of Wikipedia has been fueled by its dominant positions in Google search results; as of February 2007, 50% of search engine traffic to Wikipedia came from Google.[94]
Wikipedia's content has also been used in academic studies, books, conferences, and court cases.[95][96] The Parliament of Canada's website refers to Wikipedia's article on same-sex marriage in the "related links" section of its "further reading" list for the Civil Marriage Act.[97] The encyclopedia's assertions are increasingly used as a source by organizations such as the U.S. Federal Courts and the World Intellectual Property Office[98] — though mainly for supporting information rather than information decisive to a case.[99] A French court has ruled that the Wikimedia Foundation is not legally liable for inaccurate or potentially defamatory information posted to the site.[100]
Wikipedia has also been used as a source in journalism,[101] sometimes without attribution, and several reporters have been dismissed for plagiarizing from Wikipedia.[102][103][104] In July 2007, Wikipedia was the focus of a 30 minute documentary on BBC Radio 4[105] which argued that, with increased usage and awareness, the number of references to Wikipedia in popular culture is such that the term is one of a select band of 21st century nouns that are so familiar (Google, Facebook, YouTube) that they no longer need explanation and are on a par with such 20th century terms as Hoovering or Coke. Many parody Wikipedia's openness, with characters vandalizing or modifying the online encyclopedia project's articles. Notably, comedian Stephen Colbert has parodied or referenced Wikipedia on numerous episodes of his show The Colbert Report and coined the related term "wikiality".[84] Websites such as Uncyclopedia have also been set up parodying Wikipedia; its Main Page claims that it is the "content-free encyclopedia that anyone can edit,"[106] parodying the English Wikipedia's welcome message on its Main Page.
The Onion newspaper headline "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years Of American Independence"Wikipedia has also created an impact upon forms of media. Some media sources satirize Wikipedia's tendency for inaccuracy, such as a front-page article in The Onion in July 2006 with the title "Wikipedia Celebrates 750 Years of American Independence",[107] while others may draw upon Wikipedia's statement that anyone can edit, such as "The Negotiation", an episode of The Office, where character Michael Scott said that "Wikipedia is the best thing ever. Anyone in the world can write anything they want about any subject, so you know you are getting the best possible information", and a select few parody Wikipedia's policies, such as the xkcd strip named "Wikipedian Protester", that also included the joke "Semi-protect the Constitution!"
The first documentary film about Wikipedia, entitled Truth in Numbers: The Wikipedia Story, is scheduled for 2008 release. Shot on several continents, the film will cover the history of Wikipedia and feature interviews with Wikipedia editors around the world.[108][109]
On 28 September 2007, Italian politician Franco Grillini raised a parliamentary question with the Minister of Cultural Resources and Activities about the necessity of freedom of panorama. He said that the lack of such freedom forced Wikipedia, "the seventh most consulted website" to forbid all images of modern Italian buildings and art, and claimed this was hugely damaging to tourist revenues.[110]
On September 16, 2007, The Washington Post reported that Wikipedia has become a focal point in the 2008 election campaign, saying, "Type a candidate's name into Google, and among the first results is a Wikipedia page, making those entries arguably as important as any ad in defining a candidate. Already, the presidential entries are being edited, dissected and debated countless times each day."[111] An October 2007 Reuters article, entitled "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", reported the recent phenomenon of how having a Wikipedia article vindicates one's notability.[112]
Wikipedia won two major awards in May 2004.[113] The first was a Golden Nica for Digital Communities of the annual Prix Ars Electronica contest; this came with a €10,000 (￡6,588; $12,700) grant and an invitation to present at the PAE Cyberarts Festival in Austria later that year. The second was a Judges' Webby Award for the "community" category.[114] Wikipedia was also nominated for a "Best Practices" Webby. In September 2004, the Japanese Wikipedia was awarded a Web Creation Award from the Japan Advertisers Association. This award, normally given to individuals for great contributions to the Web in Japanese, was accepted by a long-standing contributor on behalf of the project.
In a 2006 Multiscope research study, the Dutch Wikipedia was rated the third best Dutch language site, after Google and Gmail, with a score of 8.1.[115] On January 26, 2007, Wikipedia was also awarded the fifth highest brand ranking by the readers of brandchannel.com, receiving 15% of the votes in answer to the question "Which brand had the most impact on our lives in 2006?"[116] Jimmy Wales was named one of the 100 most influential people in the world by TIME Magazine in 2006.[117] In 2006 and 2007, the Russian Wikipedia won the "Science and education" category of the "Runet Prize" (Russian: Премия Рунета) award, supervised[118] by the Russian government agency FAPMC.
In November 2006, Turkish Wikipedia was nominated under the Science category for the Alt?n ?rümcek Web ?dülleri (Golden Spider Web Awards), which are commonly known as the "Web Oscars" for Turkey. In January 2007, Turkish Wikipedia was given the award for "Best Content" in this competition. The award was given in a ceremony on January 25, 2007 at Istanbul Technical University.
Related projects
Find more information on Wikipedia by searching Wikipedia's sister projects
Dictionary definitions from Wiktionary
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Images and media from Commons
News stories from Wikinews
Learning resources from Wikiversity
A number of interactive multimedia encyclopedias incorporating entries written by the public existed long before Wikipedia was founded. The first of these was the 1986 BBC Domesday Project, which included text (entered on BBC Micro computers) and photographs from over 1 million contributors in the UK, and covering the geography, art and culture of the UK. This was the first interactive multimedia encyclopedia (and was also the first major multimedia document connected through internal links), with the majority of articles being accessible through an interactive map of the UK. The user-interface and part of the content of the Domesday Project have now been emulated on a website.[119] One of the most successful early online encyclopedias incorporating entries by the public was h2g2, which was also created by the BBC. The h2g2 encyclopedia was relatively light-hearted, focusing on articles which were both witty and informative. Both of these projects had similarities with Wikipedia, but neither gave full editorial freedom to public users.
Wikipedia has also spawned several sister projects. The first, "In Memoriam: September 11 Wiki",[120] created in October 2002,[121] detailed the September 11, 2001, attacks; this project was closed in October 2006.[122] Wiktionary, a dictionary project, was launched in December 2002;[123] Wikiquote, a collection of quotations, a week after Wikimedia launched, and Wikibooks, a collection of collaboratively written free books, the next month. Wikimedia has since started a number of other projects.[124]
A similar non-wiki project, the GNUPedia project, co-existed with Nupedia early in its history; however, it has been retired and its creator, free software figure Richard Stallman, has lent his support to Wikipedia.[17]
Other websites centered on collaborative knowledge base development have drawn inspiration from or inspired Wikipedia. Some, such as Susning.nu, Enciclopedia Libre, and WikiZnanie likewise employ no formal review process, whereas others use more traditional peer review, such as the expert-written Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, h2g2 and Everything2.
Jimmy Wales, the de facto leader of Wikipedia,[125] said in an interview in regard to the online encyclopedia Citizendium which is overviewed by experts in their respective fields:[126] "We welcome a diversity of efforts. If Larry's project is able to produce good work, we will benefit from it by copying it back into Wikipedia."[127]
See also
Meta has related information at:
List of WikipediasCongressional staffer edits to Wikipedia
Googlepedia
List of encyclopedias
List of wikis
Open content
User-generated content
Wikipedia:Press coverage
References
^ a b c List of Wikipedias. Meta-Wiki (2007-07-12).
^ a b Jonathan Sidener. "Everyone's Encyclopedia", San Diego Union Tribune. Retrieved on 2006-10-15.
^ a b c Five-year traffic statistics for wikipedia.org. Alexa Internet. Retrieved on 2007-01-29.
^ Some language versions such as English one contains non-free images.
^ Tancer, Bill. "Look Who's Using Wikipedia", 2007-05-01. Retrieved on 2007-12-01. "The sheer volume of content [...] is partly responsible for the site's dominance as an online reference. When compared to the top 3,200 educational reference sites in the U.S., Wikipedia is #1, capturing 24.3% of all visits to the category"
^ Woodson, Alex. "Wikipedia remains go-to site for online news", Reuters, 2007-07-08. Retrieved on 2007-12-16. "Online encyclopedia Wikipedia has added about 20 million unique monthly visitors in the past year, making it the top online news and information destination, according to Nielsen//NetRatings."
^ a b Top 500. Alexa. Retrieved on 2007-12-04.
^ a b Simon Waldman (2004-10-26). Who knows?. The Guardian. Retrieved on 2007-02-11.
^ a b Ahrens, Frank (2006-07-09). Death by Wikipedia: The Kenneth Lay Chronicles. The Washington Post. Retrieved on 2006-11-01.
^ a b Larry Sanger, Why Wikipedia Must Jettison Its Anti-Elitism, Kuro5hin, December 31, 2004.
^ a b Danah Boyd (2005-01-04). Academia and Wikipedia. Many-to-Many. Retrieved on 2007-02-11.
^ . "Studying Cooperation and Conflict between Authors with History Flow Visualizations" (PDF). Retrieved on 2007-01-24.
^ a b Reid Priedhorsky, Jilin Chen, Shyong (Tony) K. Lam, Katherine Panciera, Loren Terveen, John Riedl (2007-11-04). "Creating, Destroying, and Restoring Value in Wikipedia". Association for Computing Machinery GROUP '07 conference proceedings. Retrieved on 2007-10-13.
^ Jonathan Dee. "All the News That’s Fit to Print Out", The New York Times Magazine, 2007-07-01. Retrieved on 2007-12-01.
^ Andrew Lih (04-16-2004). "Wikipedia as Participatory Journalism: Reliable Sources? Metrics for evaluating collaborative media as a news resource". 5th International Symposium on Online Journalism. Retrieved on 2007-10-13.
^ "Time's Person of the Year: You", Time, 2006-12-13.
^ a b Stallman, Richard M. (2007-06-20). The Free Encyclopedia Project. Free Software Foundation. Retrieved on 2008-01-04.
^ Larry Sanger. "Let's make a wiki", Internet Archive, January 10, 2001.
^ Wikipedia: HomePage. Retrieved on 2001-03-31.
^ Larry Sanger. "Wikipedia is up!", Internet Archive, January 17, 2001.
^ "Wikipedia:Neutral point of view, Wikipedia (21 January 2007)
^ a b Larry Sanger. "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir", Slashdot, April 18, 2005.
^ "Multilingual statistics", Wikipedia, March 30, 2005
^ Meyers, Peter. "Fact-Driven? Collegial? This Site Wants You", The New York Times, September 20, 2001. Retrieved on 2007-11-22. "I can start an article that will consist of one paragraph, and then a real expert will come along and add three paragraphs and clean up my one paragraph," said Larry Sanger of Las Vegas, who founded Wikipedia with Mr. Wales.
^ Wikipedia-l: LinkBacks?. Retrieved on 2007-02-20.
^ "Encyclopedias and Dictionaries". Encyclop?dia Britannica, 15th ed. 18. (2007). Encyclop?dia Britannica. 257–286.
^ Jimmy Wales: "Announcing Wikimedia Foundation", June 20, 2003, <wikipedia-l@wikipedia.org>
^ Nair, Vipin. "Growing on volunteer power", Business Line, December 5, 2005.
^ Julie Sloane. "Wikimedia Foundation Moving To San Francisco", Wired News, 2007-10-10.
^ Budget/2005. Wikimedia Foundation. Retrieved on 2006-03-11.
^ Fundraising, Wikimedia Foundation
^ "Fundraising report", Wikimedia Foundation (January 21, 2007)
^ Walter Vermeir (2007). Resolution:License update. Wikizine. Retrieved on 2007-12-04.
^ Wikipedia:Wikipedians. Wikipedia. Retrieved on 2007-12-08.
^ Claburn, Thomas. "Wikipedia Becomes Intelligence Tool And Target For Jihadists", Information Week, March 22, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-03-25.
^ "Wikipedia Falsely Reports Sinbad's Death", Associated Press, March 16, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-03-25.
^ List of policies and guidelines. English Wikipedia.
^ Wikipedia:WikiProject. English Wikipedia. Retrieved on 2007-01-29.
^ Corner, Stuart. "What's all the fuss about Wikipedia?", iT Wire, June 18, 2006. Retrieved on 2007-03-25.
^ Schiff, Stacy. "Can Wikipedia conquer expertise?", Know It All, The New Yorker, July 24, 2006. Retrieved on 2007-03-25.
^ a b c Kleinz, Torsten. "World of Knowledge", The Wikipedia Project, Linux Magazine, February, 2005. Retrieved on 2007-03-25.
^ Mehegan, David. "Many contributors, common cause", The Boston Globe, February 13, 2006. Retrieved on 2007-03-25.
^ Wikipedia:User access levels," Wikipedia (January 12, 2007)
^ Fernanda B. Viégas, Martin Wattenberg, Jesse Kriss, Frank van Ham (2007-01-03). "Talk Before You Type: Coordination in Wikipedia". Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research. Retrieved on 2007-10-30.
^ Wikimedia servers at wikimedia.org. Retrieved on 2007-02-06.
^ "Monthly request statistics", Wikimedia. Retrieved on 2007-02-03.
^ Edits by project and country of origin (2006-09-04). Retrieved on 2007-10-25.
^ Wikipedia:Multilingual statistics. English Wikipedia. Retrieved on 2007-12-23.
^ spelling. Manual of Style. Wikipedia. Retrieved on 2007-05-19.
^ Countering systemic bias. Retrieved on 2007-05-19.
^ Fair use. Meta wiki. Retrieved on 2007-07-14.
^ Images on Wikipedia. Retrieved on 2007-07-14.
^ Fernanda B. Viégas (2007-01-03). "The Visual Side of Wikipedia". Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research. Retrieved on 2007-10-30.
^ Jimmy Wales, "Wikipedia is an encyclopedia", March 8 2005, <wikipedia-l@wikimedia.org>
^ Wikipedia: Translation. English Wikipedia, accessed on 2007-02-03
^ For example, "Translation into English", Wikipedia. (March 9, 2005)
^ "List of Mirrors Hosting the CD Iso." Wikipedia on DVD. Linterweb. Accessed 1 June 2007
^ "Wikipedia on DVD". Linterweb. Accessed 1 June 2007. "Linterweb is authorized to make a commercial use of the Wikipedia trademark restricted to the selling of the Encyclopedia CDs and DVDs."
^ "Wikipedia 0.5 Available on a CD-ROM". Wikipedia on DVD. Linterweb. Accessed 1 June 2007. "The DVD or CD-ROM version 0.5 was commercially available for purchase."
^ Polish Wikipedia on DVD.
^ Wikipedia:DVD.
^ "Wikipedia "Good Samaritans Are on the Money", Scientific American, 2007-10-19.
^ Eric Haas (2007-10-26). Will Unethical Editing Destroy Wikipedia's Credibility?. AlterNet.org.
^ Wikipedia:Version 1.0 Editorial Team/Assessment. Retrieved on 2007-10-28.
^ Fernanda B. Viégas, Martin Wattenberg, and Matthew M. McKeon (2007-07-22). "The Hidden Order of Wikipedia" (pdf). Visual Communication Lab, IBM Research. Retrieved on 2007-10-30.
^ Andrea Ciffolilli, "Phantom authority, self-selective recruitment and retention of members in virtual communities: The case of Wikipedia", First Monday December 2003.
^ Child, Maxwell L.,"Professors Split on Wiki Debate", The Harvard Crimson, Monday, February 26, 2007.
^ a b Chloe Stothart, Web threatens learning ethos, The Times Higher Education Supplement, 2007, 1799 (22 June), page 2
^ Stacy Schiff. "Know It All", The New Yorker, 2006-07-31.
^ Robert McHenry, "The Faith-Based Encyclopedia", Tech Central Station, November 15, 2004.
^ Wide World of WIKIPEDIA. The Emory Wheel (April 21, 2006). Retrieved on 2007-10-17.
^ Jaschik, Scott. "A Stand Against Wikipedia", Inside Higher Ed, 2007-01-26. Retrieved on 2007-01-27.
^ Helm, Burt. "Wikipedia: "A Work in Progress"", BusinessWeek, 2005-12-14. Retrieved on 2007-01-29.
^ Thompson, Bill. "What is it with Wikipedia?", BBC, 2005-12-16.
^ meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Reviewed_article...
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^ Giles, Jim. "Wikipedia 2.0 - now with added trust", NewScientist.com news service, 2007-09-20.
^ a b Seigenthaler, John. "A False Wikipedia 'biography'", USA Today, 2005-11-29.
^ Public Information Research - Wikipedia Watch. Retrieved on 2007-01-28.
^ Toward a New Compendium of Knowledge (longer version). Citizendium.org. Retrieved on 2006-10-10.
^ Kane, Margaret (2006-01-30). Politicians notice Wikipedia. CNET. Retrieved on 2007-01-28.
^ Bergstein, Brian (2007-01-23). Microsoft offers cash for Wikipedia edit. MSNBC. Retrieved on 2007-02-01.
^ a b Stephen Colbert. "Wikiality", Comedycentral.com, 2006-07-30.
^ Arthur, Charles. "Log on and join in, but beware the web cults", The Guardian, 2005-12-15.
^ Lu Stout, Kristie. "Wikipedia: The know-it-all Web site", CNN, 2003-08-04.
^ "Wikinfo (2005-03-30). Critical views of Wikipedia. Retrieved on 2007-01-29.
^ Rosenzweig, Roy. Can History be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past. The Journal of American History Volume 93, Number 1 (June, 2006): 117-46. Retrieved on 2007-10-29.
^ a b Hafner, Katie. "Seeing Corporate Fingerprints From the Editing of Wikipedia", The New York Times, 2007-08-19.
^ Wikipedia:Modelling Wikipedia's growth. Retrieved on 2007-12-22.
^ 694 Million People Currently Use the Internet Worldwide According To comScore Networks. comScore. Retrieved on 2007-12-16. “Wikipedia has emerged as a site that continues to increase in popularity, both globally and in the U.S.”
^ Karbasfrooshan, Ashkan (2006-10-26). What is Wikipedia.org’s Valuation?. Retrieved on 2007-12-01.
^ Rainie, Lee (2007-12-15). Wikipedia users (PDF). Pew Internet & American Life Project. Pew Research Center. Retrieved on 2007-12-15. “36% of online American adults consult Wikipedia. It is particularly popular with the well-educated and current college-age students.”
^ Google Traffic To Wikipedia up 166% Year over Year. Hitwise (2007-02-2007). Retrieved on 2007-12-22.
^ "Wikipedia:Wikipedia in the media", Wikipedia
^ Bourgeois et al v. Peters et al. (PDF). Retrieved on 2007-02-06.
^ C-38, LEGISINFO (March 28, 2005)
^ Arias, Martha L. (2007-01-29). "Wikipedia: The Free Online Encyclopedia and its Use as Court Source". Internet Business Law Services.
^ Cohen, Noam. "Courts Turn to Wikipedia, but Selectively", 2007-01-29.
^ "Wikipedia cleared in French defamation case", Reuters, 2007-11-02. Retrieved on 2007-11-02.
^ "Basayev: Russia's most wanted man", CNN, 2004-09-08. Retrieved on 2007-07-30.
^ Shizuoka newspaper plagiarized Wikipedia article, Japan News Review, July 5, 2007
^ "Express-News staffer resigns after plagiarism in column is discovered", San Antonio Express-News, January 9, 2007.
^ "Inquiry prompts reporter's dismissal", Honolulu Star-Bulletin, January 13, 2007.
^ Radio 4 Documentary.
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^ wikidocumentary.wikia.com/wiki/Main_Page...
^ Hart, Hugh (March 11, 2007). Industry Buzz. SFGate.com.
^ Comunicato stampa. On. Franco Grillini. Wikipedia. Interrogazione a Rutelli. Con "diritto di panorama" promuovere arte e architettura contemporanea italiana. Rivedere con urgenza legge copyright (12 October 2007).
^ Jose Antonio Vargas. "On Wikipedia, Debating 2008 Hopefuls' Every Facet", The Washington Post, 2007-09-17.
^ Jennifer Ablan. "Wikipedia page the latest status symbol", Reuters, 2007-10-22. Retrieved on 2007-10-24.
^ "Trophy Box", Meta-Wiki (March 28, 2005).
^ Webby Awards 2004. The International Academy of Digital Arts and Sciences (2004). Retrieved on 2007-06-19.
^ Nederlandse Wikipedia groeit als kool (Website in Dutch Language), Recovered December 27, 2006
^ Zumpano, Anthony. "Similar Search Results: Google Wins", Interbrand, 2007-01-29. Retrieved on 2007-01-28.
^ Anderson, Chris. "Jimmy Wales", TIME, 2006-04-30. Retrieved on 2006-12-18.
^ (Russian)Major award of Russian Internet became a state one — Lenta.ru, August 29 2005
^ Web-based emulator of the Domesday Project User Interface and data from the Community Disc (contributions from the general public) -- most articles can be accessed using the interactive map
^ sep11memories.org/. Retrieved on 2007-02-06.
^ First edit to the wiki In Memoriam: September 11 wiki (October 28, 2002),
^ "In Memoriam",In Memoriam: September 11 Wiki (October 31, 2006)
^ "Announcement of Wiktionary's creation", December 12, 2002. Retrieved on 2007-02-02.
^ "Our projects", Wikimedia Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-01-24
^ Frith, Holden. "Wikipedia founder launches rival online encyclopedia", The Times, March 26, 2007,. Retrieved on 2007-06-27. "Wikipedia’s de facto leader, Jimmy Wales, stood by the site's format." — Holden Frith.
^ Orlowski, Andrew. "Wikipedia founder forks Wikipedia, More experts, less fiddling?", The Register, September 18, 2006. Retrieved on 2007-06-27. "Larry Sanger describes the Citizendium project as a "progressive or gradual fork", with the major difference that experts have the final say over edits." — Andrew Orlowski.
^ Lyman, Jay. "Wikipedia Co-Founder Planning New Expert-Authored Site", LinuxInsider, September 20, 2006. Retrieved on 2007-06-27.
Further reading
Ulrike Pfeil, Panayiotis Zaphiris, and Chee Siang Ang (2006). "Cultural differences in collaborative authoring of Wikipedia". Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 12 (1).
Joseph M. Reagle Jr. (2005). Do as I do: leadership in the Wikipedia. Wikipedia Drafts.
External links
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George W. Bush
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
George Walker Bush
--------------------------------------...
43rd President of the United States
Incumbent
Assumed office
January 20, 2001
Vice President(s) Dick Cheney
Preceded by Bill Clinton
Succeeded by Incumbent
--------------------------------------...
46th Governor of Texas
In office
January 17, 1995 – December 21, 2000
Lieutenant(s) Bob Bullock
Rick Perry
Preceded by Ann Richards
Succeeded by Rick Perry
--------------------------------------...
Born July 6, 1946 (1946-07-06) (age 61)
New Haven, Connecticut, United States
Political party Republican
Spouse Laura Bush
Residence White House (official)
Crawford, Texas (private)
Alma mater Yale University
Harvard Business School
Occupation Businessman (oil, baseball)
Religion United Methodist[1][2]
Signature
George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is the forty-third and current President of the United States of America, first inaugurated on January 20, 2001. He previously served as the forty-sixth Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000 and is the eldest son of former United States President George Herbert Walker Bush.
After graduating from college, Bush worked in his family's oil businesses before making an unsuccessful run for the U.S. House of Representatives in 1978. He later co-owned the Texas Rangers baseball team before returning to politics in a campaign for Governor of Texas. He defeated Ann Richards and was elected Governor of Texas in 1994. Bush was elected to the Presidency in 2000 as the Republican candidate in a close and controversial contest, in which he lost the nationwide popular vote, but won the electoral vote.
As president, Bush signed into law a US$1.35 trillion tax cut program in 2001,[3] and in 2002 the No Child Left Behind Act. In October 2001, after the attacks on September 11, 2001, Bush announced a global War on Terrorism and ordered an invasion of Afghanistan to overthrow the Taliban, destroy Al-Qaeda, and to capture Osama bin Laden. In March 2003, Bush ordered the invasion of Iraq, asserting that Iraq was in possession of weapons of mass destruction and that the war was necessary for the protection of the United States.[4][5]
Running in the midst of the Iraq War,[6] Bush was re-elected on November 2, 2004;[7] his presidential campaign against Senator John Kerry was successful despite controversy over Bush's prosecution of the Iraq War and domestic issues.[8][9] After his re-election, Bush received increasingly heated criticism. He has the distinction of having some of the highest and lowest approval ratings of any president in history during his term. His domestic approval has ranged from 90 percent (the highest ever recorded by The Gallup Organization)[10] immediately after the September 11, 2001 attacks to a low of 24 percent,[11] with a disapproval rating of 65 percent, the highest level of disfavor for any sitting presidents since Richard Nixon and Harry Truman.[12] Internationally, Bush tops the list of the most unpopular politicians, with disapproval of 87% in France and Germany, and 88% in Spain.[13]
Contents [hide]
1 Childhood to mid-life
2 Elected positions
2.1 Governor of Texas
2.2 2000 Presidential candidacy
2.2.1 Primary
2.2.2 General election
2.3 2004 Presidential candidacy
3 Presidency
3.1 Economic policy
3.2 Education and health
3.3 Social services and Social Security
3.4 Environmental policy and global warming
3.5 Stem cell research and first use of veto power
3.6 Immigration
3.7 Civil liberties and treatment of detainees
3.8 Hurricane Katrina
3.9 Foreign policy
3.9.1 September 11, 2001
3.9.2 War on Terror
3.9.3 Afghanistan
3.9.4 Iraq
3.9.5 North Korea
3.10 Assassination attempt
3.11 Midterm dismissal of U.S. attorneys
4 Criticism and public perception
4.1 Domestic perceptions
4.2 Foreign perceptions
5 Electoral history
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Childhood to mid-life
Main articles: Early life of George W. Bush and Professional life of George W. Bush
Lt. George W. Bush while in the National GuardBorn in New Haven, Connecticut on July 6, 1946, Bush was the first child of George H. W. Bush and Barbara Bush (née Pierce). Bush was raised in Midland and Houston, Texas, with his four siblings, Jeb, Neil, Marvin, and Dorothy. Another younger sister, Robin, died in 1953 at the age of three from leukemia.[14] Bush's grandfather, Prescott Bush, was a U.S. Senator from Connecticut, and his father served as U.S. President from 1989 to 1993. He is also distantly related to President Franklin Pierce and several other presidents.[citation needed]
Bush attended Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, where he played baseball, and was the head cheerleader at the all-boys school during his senior year.[15][16] Following in his father's footsteps, Bush attended Yale University, where he received a Bachelor's degree in history in 1968.[17] As a college senior, Bush became a member of the secretive Skull and Bones society. By his own characterization, Bush was an average student.[18][19]
In May 1968, at the height of the ongoing Vietnam War, Bush was accepted into the Texas Air National Guard despite[20] only scoring in the 25th percentile[21][22] on the pilot's written aptitude test, which was the lowest acceptable passing grade.[20] This was at a time when more than ten thousand Air National Guard personnel, many fighter pilots, had been called to active duty to serve both in Vietnam, and in support of operations there.[23] After training, he was assigned to duty in Houston, flying Convair F-102s out of Ellington Air Force Base.[24] Critics have alleged that Bush was favorably treated during his time of service due to his father's political standing and that he was irregular in attendance. The United States Department of Defense has released all of the records of Bush's Texas Air National Guard service which it says remain in its official archives.[21] In 1970 Bush applied to the University of Texas School of Law and was rejected.[25] Bush took a transfer to the Alabama Air National Guard in 1972 to work on a Republican senate campaign, and in October 1973 he was discharged from the Texas Air National Guard almost eight months early to attend Harvard Business School and completed his six-year service obligation in the inactive reserve.[26]
There are a number of accounts of substance abuse and otherwise disorderly conduct by Bush from this time. Bush has admitted to drinking "too much" in those years and described this period of his life as his "nomadic" period of "irresponsible youth".[27] On September 4, 1976, at the age of 30, Bush was arrested for driving under the influence of alcohol (DUI) near his family's summer home in Kennebunkport, Maine. He pled guilty, was fined US$150, and had his driver's license suspended in Maine until 1978.[28][29]
George and Laura Bush with their daughters Jenna and Barbara, 1990After obtaining an MBA from Harvard University,[30] Bush entered the oil industry in Texas. In 1977, he was introduced by friends to Laura Welch, a schoolteacher and librarian. They married and settled in Midland, Texas. Bush left his family's Episcopal Church to join his wife's United Methodist Church.[1]
In 1978, Bush ran for the U.S. House of Representatives from the 19th Congressional District of Texas. His opponent Kent Hance portrayed Bush as being out of touch with rural Texans; Bush lost by 6,000 votes.[31] Bush returned to the oil industry, becoming a senior partner or chief executive officer of several ventures, such as Arbusto Energy,[32] Spectrum 7, and, later, Harken Energy.[33] These ventures suffered from the general decline of oil prices in the 1980s that had affected the industry and the regional economy. Additionally, questions of possible insider trading involving Harken have arisen, though the Securities and Exchange Commission's (SEC) investigation of Bush concluded that he did not have enough insider information before his stock sale to warrant a case.[34]
Bush moved with his family to Washington, D.C., in 1988, to work on his father's campaign for the U.S. presidency.[35][36] Returning to Texas after the campaign, Bush purchased a share in the Texas Rangers baseball franchise in April 1989, where he served as managing general partner for five years.[37] Bush actively led the team's projects and regularly attended its games, often choosing to sit in the open stands with fans.[38] The sale of Bush's shares in the Rangers in 1998 brought him over US$15 million from his initial US$800,000 investment.[39]
Elected positions
Governor of Texas
Main article: George W. Bush as Governor of Texas
Bush declared his candidacy for the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election as his brother, Jeb, sought the governorship of Florida. Winning the Republican primary easily, Bush faced incumbent Governor Ann Richards, a popular Democrat who was considered the favorite.
Bush was aided by several political advisers, including Karen Hughes, Joe Allbaugh, and Karl Rove. The Bush campaign was criticized for allegedly using controversial methods to disparage Richards. Following an impressive performance in the debates, however, Bush's popularity grew. He won with 52 percent against Richards' 47 percent.[40]
As governor, Bush successfully sponsored legislation for tort reform, increased education funding, set higher standards for schools, and reformed the criminal justice system. Under his leadership, Texas executed a record 152 prisoners.[41] Bush used a budget surplus to push through a $2 billion tax-cut plan, the largest in Texas history, which cemented Bush's credentials as a pro-business fiscal conservative.[40]
Bush also pioneered faith-based welfare programs by extending government funding and support for religious organizations that provide social services such as education, alcohol and drug abuse prevention, and reduction of domestic violence. He proclaimed June 10 to be Jesus Day in Texas, a day where he "urge[d] all Texans to answer the call to serve those in need."[42]
In 1998, Bush won re-election in a landslide victory with nearly 69 percent of the vote.[43] Within a year, he had decided to seek the Republican nomination for the presidency.
2000 Presidential candidacy
Main article: United States presidential election, 2000
Primary
Bush's campaign was managed by Rove, Hughes and Allbaugh, as well as by other political associates from Texas. He was endorsed by a majority of Republicans in 38 state legislatures. After winning the Iowa caucus, Bush lost to U.S. Senator John McCain of Arizona in the New Hampshire primary. Bush then picked up eleven of the next sixteen primaries, effectively clinching the Republican nomination.
In the televised Republican presidential debate held in Des Moines, Iowa on December 13, 1999, all of the participating candidates were asked "What political philosopher or thinker do you most identify with and why?" Unlike most of the other candidates, who cited former presidents and other political figures, Bush responded, "Christ, because he changed my heart". Bush's appeal to religious values seems to have aided him in the general election. In a Gallup poll those who said they "attend church weekly" gave him 56% of their vote in 2000, and 63% of their vote in 2004.[44] During the election cycle, Bush labeled himself a "compassionate conservative", and his political campaign promised to "restore honor and dignity to the White House," a reference to the scandals and impeachment of his predecessor.[45][46]
General election
On July 25, 2000, Bush surprised some observers by asking Halliburton Corporation chief executive officer Dick Cheney, a former White House Chief of Staff, U.S. Representative and Secretary of Defense, to be his Vice Presidential running mate. Cheney was then serving as head of Bush's Vice-Presidential search committee.
While stressing his successful record as governor of Texas, Bush's campaign criticized[47] the Democratic nominee, incumbent Vice President Al Gore, over gun control and taxation.
Bush won the 2000 election in a controversial victory that saw the state of Florida appearing in exit polls to go to Gore, then to Bush. The closeness of the outcome, as well as reports of votes being miscounted, led to the Florida election recount. Two initial counts went to Bush, but that outcome was tied up in courts for a month until reaching the U.S. Supreme Court. On December 9, in the Bush v. Gore case, the Court reversed a Florida Supreme Court ruling ordering a third count, and stopped an ordered statewide hand recount based on the argument that the different standards that different counting procedures would have used violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. The machine recount stated that Bush had won the Florida vote by a margin of 537 votes out of 6 million cast.[48] The famous episode pushed terms such as hanging chad into the popular lexicon.
Bush received 271 electoral votes to Gore's 266 as a result of the Florida outcome. However, he lost the popular vote by more than half a million votes[49] making him the first president elected without at least a plurality of the popular vote since Benjamin Harrison in 1888.[50][51]
2004 Presidential candidacy
Main article: United States presidential election, 2004
George W. Bush speaks at a campaign rally in 2004.Bush commanded broad support in the Republican Party and did not encounter a primary challenge. He appointed Kenneth Mehlman as campaign manager, with a political strategy devised by Rove.[52] Bush outlined an agenda that included a strong commitment to the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, a renewal of the USA PATRIOT Act, making earlier tax cuts permanent, cutting the budget deficit in half, promoting education, as well as reform in tort law, reforming Social Security, and creation of an ownership society.
The Bush campaign advertised across the U.S. against Democratic candidates, including Bush's emerging opponent, Massachusetts Senator John Kerry. Kerry and other Democrats attacked Bush on the war in Iraq, perceived excesses of the USA PATRIOT Act and for allegedly failing to stimulate the economy and job growth. The Bush campaign portrayed Kerry as a staunch liberal who would raise taxes and increase the size of government. The Bush campaign continuously criticized Kerry's seemingly contradictory statements on the war in Iraq, and claimed Kerry lacked the decisiveness and vision necessary for success in the war on terrorism. Bush carried 31 of 50 states for a total of 286 Electoral College votes.
Bush won an outright majority of the popular vote, the first president to do so since his father in 1988.[53] In addition, Bush's re-election occurring along with the Republican Party maintaining its majorities in both houses of Congress was the first time this instance occurred since Calvin Coolidge's election in 1924.
Presidency
Main articles: Presidency of George W. Bush, George W. Bush's first term as President of the United States, George W. Bush's second term as President of the United States, George W. Bush Cabinet, and Domestic policy of the George W. Bush administration
The Bush Cabinet
OFFICE NAME TERM
President George W. Bush 2001?–?
Vice President Dick Cheney 2001?–?
Secretary of State Colin Powell 2001?–?2005
Condoleezza Rice 2005?–?
Secretary of Treasury Paul O'Neill 2001?–?2002
John W. Snow 2003?–?2006
Henry Paulson 2006?–?
Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld 2001?–?2006
Robert Gates 2006?–?
Attorney General John Ashcroft 2001?–?2005
Alberto Gonzales 2005?–?2007
Michael Mukasey 2007?–?
Secretary of the Interior Gale Norton 2001?–?2006
Dirk Kempthorne 2006?–?
Secretary of Agriculture Ann Veneman 2001?–?2005
Mike Johanns 2005?–?2007
Secretary of Commerce Donald Evans 2001?–?2005
Carlos Gutierrez 2005?–?
Secretary of Labor Elaine Chao 2001?–?
Secretary of Health and
Human Services Tommy Thompson 2001?–?2005
Michael Leavitt 2005?–?
Secretary of Education Rod Paige 2001?–?2005
Margaret Spellings 2005?–?
Secretary of Housing and
Urban Development Mel Martinez 2001?–?2003
Alphonso Jackson 2003?–?
Secretary of Transportation Norman Mineta 2001?–?2006
Mary Peters 2006?–?
Secretary of Energy Spencer Abraham 2001?–?2005
Samuel Bodman 2005?–?
Secretary of Veterans Affairs Anthony Principi 2001?–?2005
Jim Nicholson 2005?–?2007
Secretary of Homeland Security Tom Ridge 2003?–?2005
Michael Chertoff 2005?–?
Chief of Staff Andrew Card 2001?–?2006
Joshua Bolten 2006?–?
Administrator of the
Environmental Protection Agency Christine Todd Whitman 2001?–?2003
Michael Leavitt 2003?–?2005
Stephen L. Johnson 2005?–?
Director of the Office of
Management and Budget Mitch Daniels 2001?–?2003
Joshua Bolten 2003?–?2006
Rob Portman 2006?–?2007
Director of the Office of
National Drug Control Policy John Walters 2001?–?
United States Trade Representative Robert Zoellick 2001?–?2005
Rob Portman 2005?–?2006
Susan Schwab 2006?–?
National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice 2001?–?2005
Stephen Hadley 2005?–?
Chairman of the
Joint Chiefs of Staff Gen. Richard B. Myers 2001?–?2005
Gen. Peter Pace 2005?–?2007
Adm. Michael Mullen 2007?–?
Director of National Intelligence John Negroponte 2005?–?2007
John Michael McConnell 2007?–?
Director of the
Central Intelligence Agency George Tenet 2001?–?2004
Porter J. Goss 2004?–?2006
Gen. Michael V. Hayden 2006?–?
Director of the
Federal Bureau of Investigation Robert S. Mueller III 2001?–?
Economic policy
Main article: Economic policy of the George W. Bush administration
Facing opposition in Congress, Bush held town hall-style public meetings across the U.S. in 2001 to increase public support for his plan for a US$1.35 trillion tax cut program—one of the largest tax cuts in U.S. history. Bush and his economic advisers argued that unspent government funds should be returned to taxpayers. With reports of the threat of recession from Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan, Bush argued that such a tax cut would stimulate the economy and create jobs.[54] Others, including the Treasury Secretary at the time Paul O'Neill, were opposed to some of the tax cuts on the basis that they would contribute to budget deficits and undermine Social Security.[55]
Under the Bush Administration, Real GDP has grown at an average annual rate of 2.5 percent,[56] considerably below the average for business cycles from 1949 to 2000.[57][58] The Dow Jones Industrial Average has grown by about 30 percent since January 2001.[59] Unemployment rose from 4.2 percent in January 2001 to 6.3 percent in June 2003, dropping to 4.5 percent as of July 2007.[60] The on-budget deficit for 2006 was US$434 billion, a change from an US$86 billion surplus in 2000.[61] Inflation-adjusted median household income has been flat while the nation's poverty rate has increased.[62] By August 23, 2007, the national debt had officially risen to US$8.98 trillion dollars; the national debt has increased US$3.25 trillion dollars since Bush took office.[63]
While some argue that the Bush-era economy has mostly benefited the wealthy and not the majority of middle and lower-class citizens,[64][65][66] and still others have claimed the exact opposite;[67][68] information available suggests that the standard of living has increased on all rungs of the socio-economic strata -- with the bulk of income gains having gone to the top 1 percent,[69] whose share of income has increased substantially.[70]
Another significant part of the Bush economic plan was the Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act of 2005.
Education and health
Bush signs the No Child Left Behind Act into law.The No Child Left Behind Act aimed to measure and close the gap between rich and poor student performance, provide options to parents with students in low-performing schools, and target more federal funding to low-income schools. Critics argue that Bush has underfunded his own program, and Democratic Senator Ted Kennedy has claimed: "The tragedy is that these long-overdue reforms are finally in place, but the funds are not."[71] Many educational experts have criticized these reforms, contending that NCLBA's focus on "high stakes testing" and quantitative outcomes is counterproductive.[72][73] Bush increased funding for the National Science Foundation and National Institutes of Health in his first years of office, and created education programs to strengthen the grounding in science and mathematics for American high school students. However, funding for NIH failed to keep up with inflation in 2004 and 2005, and was actually cut in 2006, the first such cut in 36 years.[74]
In 2007, Bush opposed and vetoed State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) legislation which was tied by the Democrats onto a war funding bill and passed by Congress. The Schip legislation would have significantly expanded federally-funded health care benefits and plans to children of some low-income families from about 6 million to 10 million children. It was to be funded by an increase in the cigarette tax.[75] Bush viewed the legislation as a move toward the liberal platform of socialized health care, and claimed that the program could benefit families making as much as US$83,000 per year who would not have otherwise needed the help.[76]
Social services and Social Security
Bush promoted increased deregulation and investment options in social services, leading Republican efforts to pass the Medicare Act of 2003, which added prescription drug coverage to Medicare and created Health Savings Accounts, which would permit people to set aside a portion of their Medicare tax to build a "nest egg". The retired persons lobby group AARP worked with the Bush Administration on the program and gave their endorsement. Bush said the law, estimated to cost US$400 billion over the first 10 years, would give the elderly "better choices and more control over their health care".[77]
Bush began his second term by outlining a major initiative to reform Social Security, which was facing record deficit projections beginning in 2005. Bush made it the centerpiece of his agenda despite contrary beliefs in the media and in the U.S. Congress, which saw the program as the "third rail of politics," with the American public being suspicious of any attempt to change it. It was also widely believed to be the province of the Democratic Party, with Republicans in the past having been accused of efforts to dismantle or privatize it. In his 2005 State of the Union address, Bush discussed the allegedly impending bankruptcy of the program and attacked political inertia against reform. He proposed options to permit Americans to divert a portion of their Social Security tax (FICA) into secured investments, creating a "nest egg" that he claimed would enjoy steady growth. Despite emphasizing safeguards and remaining open to other plans, Bush's proposal was criticized for its high cost, and Democrats attacked it as an effort to partially privatize the system, and for leaving Americans open to the whims of the market. Bush embarked on a 60-day national tour, campaigning vigorously for his initiative in media events ("Conversations on Social Security") in a largely unsuccessful attempt to gain support from the general public.[78] Despite energetic campaign by Bush to promote his Social Security reform plan, by May 2005 the public support for the Bush proposal declined substantially[79] and the House GOP leadership decided not to put Social Security reform on the priority list for the remainder of their 2005 legislative agenda.[80] The proposal's legislative prospects were further diminished by the political fallout from the Hurricane Katrina in the fall of 2005.[81] In the run-up to the 2006 congressional elections, the Republican leadership in Congress put the hot-button issue of the Social Security reform on the back burner. No substantive legislative action was taken on this issue in 2006. After the Democrats took over control of both houses of Congress as a result of the 2006 mid-term elections, the prospects of any further congressional action on the Bush proposal appeared to be dead for the remainder of his term in office.
Environmental policy and global warming
Main article: Domestic policy of the George W. Bush administration#Environment
Upon arriving in office in 2001, Bush did not support the Kyoto Protocol, an amendment to the United Nations Convention on Climate Change which seeks to impose mandatory targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Bush partially based this decision on the fact that the Senate had voted 95–0 in 1997 on a resolution expressing its disapproval of the protocol. Bush asserted he would not support it because the treaty exempted 80 percent of the world's population[82] and would have cost the economy tens of billions of dollars per year,[83] and was based on the uncertain science of climate change.[84] The Bush Administration's stance on global warming has remained controversial in the scientific and environmental communities during his presidency.
In 2004, the Director of NASA's Goddard Institute, James Hansen, publicly and harshly accused the Administration of misinforming the public by suppressing the scientific evidence of the dangers of greenhouse gases, saying the Bush Administration wanted to hear only scientific results that “fit predetermined, inflexible positions” and edited reports to make the dangers sound less threatening in what he asserted was "direct opposition to the most fundamental precepts of science."[85][86] Other experts, such as former United States Department of Energy official Joseph Romm, have decried the Bush administration as a "denier and delayer" of government action essential to reduce carbon emissions and deter global warming.[87] Bush had said that he has consistently noted that global warming is a serious problem, but asserted there is a "debate over whether it's manmade or naturally caused".[88] In his 2007 State of the Union Address, Bush renewed his pledge to work toward diminished reliance on foreign oil by reducing fossil fuel consumption and increasing alternative fuel production.[89]
In 2002, Bush announced the Clear Skies Initiative,[90] aimed at amending the Clean Air Act to reduce air pollution through the use of emissions trading programs. Critics contended that it would have weakened the original legislation by allowing higher levels of pollutants than were permitted at that time.[91] The initiative was introduced to Congress, but failed to make it out of committee.
In 2006, Bush declared the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands a national monument, creating the largest marine reserve to date. It comprises 84 million acres (340,000 km2) and is home to 7,000 species of fish, birds and other marine animals, many of which are specific to only those islands.[92] The move was hailed by conservationists for "its foresight and leadership in protecting this incredible area."[93]
Stem cell research and first use of veto power
Federal funding for medical research involving the creation or destruction of human embryos through the Department of Health and Human Services and the National Institutes of Health has been forbidden by law since the Republican Revolution of 1995.[94] Bush has asserted that he supports stem cell research, but only to the extent that human embryos are not destroyed in order to harvest additional stem cells.[95] On August 9, 2001, Bush signed an executive order lifting the ban on federal funding for the 71 existing "lines" of stem cells,[96] but the ability of these existing lines to provide an adequate medium for testing has been questioned. Testing can only be done on 12 of the original lines, and all of the approved lines have been cultured in contact with mouse cells, which makes it highly unlikely FDA would ever approve them for administration to humans.[97] On July 19, 2006, Bush used his veto power for the first time in his presidency to veto the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act. The bill would have reversed the Dickey Amendment, permitting federal money to be used for research where stem cells are derived from the destruction of an embryo.[98]
Immigration
In 2006, Bush shifted focus somewhat to re-emphasize immediate and comprehensive immigration reform. Going beyond calls from Republicans and conservatives to secure the border, Bush demanded that Congress create a "temporary guest-worker program" to allow more than 12 million illegal immigrants to obtain legal status. Bush continues to argue that the lack of legal status denies the protections of U.S. laws to millions of people who face dangers of poverty and exploitation, and penalizes employers despite a demand for immigrant labor.
Bush urged Congress to provide additional funding for border security, and committed to deploying 6,000 National Guard troops to the United States-Mexico border.[99] In May-June 2007 Bush strongly supported the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 which was written by a bipartisan group of U.S. senators with the active participation of the Bush administration.[100] The bill envisioned: a legalization program for undocumented immigrants, with an eventual path to citizenship; establishing a guest worker program; a series of border and worksite enforcement measures; a reform of the green card application process and the introduction of a point-based "merit" system for green cards; elimination of "chain migration" and of the diversity Green Card Lottery; and other measures.
A heated public debate followed, which resulted in a substantial rift within the Republican Party, with the majority of the conservative base opposing the bill because of its legalization or "amnesty" provisions.[101] The bill was finally defeated in the Senate on June 28, 2007, when a cloture motion failed on a 46-53 vote, whereas 60 positive votes were needed for the motion to pass.[102] Bush was very disappointed in the bill's failure that also represented a defeat of one of his signature domestic initiatives.[103][104] The Bush administration later proposed a series of immigration enforcement measures that do not require a change in law.[105]
Civil liberties and treatment of detainees
Following the events of September 11, Bush issued an executive order authorizing the NSA to monitor communications between suspected terrorists outside the U.S. and parties within the U.S. without obtaining a warrant pursuant to the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act,[106] maintaining that the warrant requirements of FISA were implicitly superseded by the subsequent passage of the Authorization for Use of Military Force.[107] The program proved to be controversial, as critics of the administration, as well as organizations such as the American Bar Association, claimed it was illegal.[108][109] In August 2006, a U.S. district court judge ruled that the Terrorist Surveillance Program was unconstitutional,[110] though the decision was later dismissed.[111] On January 17, 2007, Attorney General Alberto Gonzales informed U.S. Senate leaders that the program would not be reauthorized by the president, but would be subjected to judicial oversight.[112]
On October 17, 2006 Bush signed into law the Military Commissions Act of 2006,[113] a bill passed in the wake of the Supreme Court's decision on Hamdan v. Rumsfeld,[114] which allows the U.S. government the ability to prosecute unlawful enemy combatants by military commission rather than the standard trial. The bill also eliminates habeas corpus and, while barring torture of detainees, allows the president to determine what constitutes torture.[113]
Hurricane Katrina
Main article: Political effects of Hurricane Katrina
One of the worst natural disasters in U.S. history, Hurricane Katrina, struck early in Bush’s second term. Katrina formed in late August during the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season and devastated much of the north-central Gulf Coast of the United States, particularly New Orleans.[115]
Bush shakes hands with New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin September 2, 2005 after viewing the devastation of Hurricane Katrina.Bush declared a state of emergency in Louisiana on August 27,[116] and in Mississippi and Alabama on August 28;[117][118] he authorized the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to manage the disaster, but his announcement failed to spur these agencies to action.[119] The eye of the hurricane made landfall on August 29, and New Orleans started to flood due to levee breaches; later that day, Bush declared that a major disaster existed in Louisiana,[120] officially authorizing FEMA to start using federal funds to help with the recovery effort. On August 30, Department of Homeland Security secretary Michael Chertoff declared it "an incident of national significance,"[121] triggering the first use of the newly created National Response Plan. Three days later, on September 2, National Guard troops first entered the city of New Orleans.[122] The same day, Bush toured parts of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama and declared that the success of the recovery effort up to that point was "not enough."[123]
Due to mounting criticism as the disaster in New Orleans intensified, Bush claimed full responsibility for the failures on the part of the federal government in its response to the hurricane.[122] Criticisms of Bush focused on three main issues. First, leaders from both parties attacked the president for having appointed incompetent leaders to positions of power at FEMA, most notably Michael D. Brown,[124] who worked for the Arabian Horse Association before commanding FEMA. Bush had praised the work of Brown just as weaknesses in the FEMA response were becoming obvious to the public. Second, many people argued that the inadequacy of the federal response was the result of the Iraq War and the demands it placed on the armed forces and the federal budget.[125] Third, in the days immediately following the disaster, Bush denied having received warnings about the possibility of floodwaters breaching the levees protecting New Orleans.[126] However, the presidential videoconference briefing of August 28 shows Max Mayfield warning the president that overflowing the levees was "obviously a very, very grave concern."[127] Critics claimed that the president was misrepresenting his administration's role in what they saw as a flawed response.
Foreign policy
Main article: Foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration
President George Bush reunites with Panamanian president Martin Torrijos.The Bush administration withdrew U.S. support for several international agreements, including the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM) with Russia. It pursued a national missile defense which was previously barred by the ABM treaty and was never ratified by Congress.[128] Bush also expressed U.S. support for the defense of Taiwan following the stand-off in April 2001 with the People's Republic of China over the Hainan Island incident, when an EP-3E spy plane collided with a Chinese Air Force jet, leading to the detention of U.S. personnel. In 2003–2004, Bush authorized U.S. military intervention in Haiti and Liberia to protect U.S. interests.
Bush, Mahmoud Abbas, and Ariel Sharon meet at the Red Sea Summit in Aqaba, Jordan on June 4, 2003.Bush emphasized a careful approach to the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians. Bush denounced Palestine Liberation Organization leader Yasser Arafat for alleged support of violence. However, he sponsored dialogs between prime ministers Ariel Sharon and Mahmoud Abbas. Bush supported Sharon's unilateral disengagement plan, and lauded the democratic elections held in Palestine after Arafat's death.
President Bush inspects the Malacanang Palace honor guards with Philippines' President Gloria Arroyo during the former's state visit in Manila on October 2003.In his State of the Union Address in January 2003, Bush outlined a five-year strategy for global emergency AIDS relief, the President's Emergency Plan For AIDS Relief. Bush announced US$15 billion for this effort—US$3 billion per year for five years—but requested less in annual budgets.[129]
Bush condemned the attacks by militia forces on the people of Darfur, and denounced the killings in Sudan as genocide.[130] Bush said that an international peacekeeping presence was critical in Darfur, but opposed referring the situation to the International Criminal Court.
President George W. Bush, then-President of Mexico, Vicente Fox and Canada's Prime Minister Stephen Harper stand in front of "El Castillo" in Chichen Itza, March 30, 2006.Bush began his second term with an emphasis on improving strained relations with European nations. He appointed long-time adviser Karen Hughes to oversee a global public relations campaign. Bush lauded the pro-democracy struggles in Georgia and Ukraine. In March 2006, Bush visited India, leading to renewed ties between the two countries, particularly in areas of nuclear energy and counter-terrorism cooperation.[131] Midway through Bush's second term, many analysts observed a retreat from his freedom and democracy agenda, highlighted in policy changes toward some oil-rich former Soviet republics in central Asia.[132]
Bush has voiced his staunch support for the independence of Kosovo. On June 10, 2007, he met with Albanian Prime Minister Sali Berisha and became the first president to visit Albania. He repeated his support for Kosovo's independence: "At some point in time, sooner rather than later, you’ve got to say, ‘Enough is enough. Kosovo is independent."[133]
September 11, 2001
Main article: September 11, 2001 attacks
Bush addresses rescue workers at Ground Zero in New York, September 14, 2001.The September 11 terrorist attacks were a major turning point in Bush's presidency. That evening, he addressed the nation from the Oval Office, promising a strong response to the attacks but emphasizing the need for the nation to come together and comfort the families of the victims. On September 14, he visited the World Trade Center site, meeting with Mayor Rudy Giuliani and firefighters, police officers, and volunteers. Bush addressed the gathering via megaphone while standing on a heap of rubble:
“ I can hear you. The rest of the world hears you. And the people who knocked these buildings down will hear all of us soon. ”
[cite this quote]
In a September 20, 2001 speech, Bush condemned Osama bin Laden and al Qaeda, and issued the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, where bin Laden was operating, an ultimatum to "hand over the terrorists, or … share in their fate."[134] Bush announced a global War on Terrorism, and after the Afghan Taliban regime was not forthcoming with Osama bin Laden, he ordered the invasion of Afghanistan to overthrow the Taliban regime.[135]
War on Terror
Main article: War on Terrorism
After the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States by the al Qaeda organization of Osama bin Laden and the invasion of Afghanistan in response, Bush announced a global War on Terror in his January 29, 2002 State of the Union address and asserted that an "axis of evil" consisting of North Korea, Iran, and Iraq was "arming to threaten the peace of the world" and "pose[d] a grave and growing danger".[136] The Bush Administration proceeded to assert a right and intention to engage in preemptive war, also called preventive war, in response to perceived threats.[137] This would form a basis for what became known as the Bush Doctrine. The broader "War on Terror", allegations of an "axis of evil", and, in particular, the doctrine of preemptive war, began to weaken the unprecedented levels of international and domestic support for Bush and United States action against al Qaeda following the September 11 attacks.[138]
Some national leaders alleged abuse by U.S. troops and called for the U.S. to shut down detention centers in Guantanamo Bay and elsewhere. Dissent from, and criticism of, Bush's leadership in the War on Terror increased as the war in Iraq expanded.[139][140][141] In 2006, a National Intelligence Estimate expressed the combined opinion of the United States' own intelligence agencies, concluding that the Iraq War had become the "cause celebre for jihadists" and that jihad movement was growing.[142][143]
Afghanistan
Main article: War in Afghanistan (2001-present)
President George W. Bush and President Hamid Karzai of Afghanistan appear together in 2006 at a joint news conference at the Presidential Palace in Kabul.On October 7, 2001, U.S. and Australian forces initiated bombing campaigns that led to the arrival on November 13 of Northern Alliance troops in Kabul. The main goals of the war were to defeat the Taliban, drive al Qaeda out of Afghanistan, and capture key al Qaeda leaders. By December 2001, the UN had installed the Afghan Interim Authority chaired by Hamid Karzai.[144][145]
Efforts to kill or capture al Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden failed as he escaped a battle in December 2001 in the mountainous region of Tora Bora, which the Bush Administration later acknowledged to have resulted from a failure to commit enough U.S. ground troops.[146] Bin Laden and al Qaeda's number two leader, Ayman al-Zawahiri, as well as the leader of the Taliban, Mohammed Omar, remain at large as of December 2007.
Despite the initial success in driving the Taliban from power in Kabul, by early 2003 the Taliban was regrouping, amassing new funds and recruits.[147] In 2006 the Taliban insurgency appeared larger, fiercer, and better organized than expected, with large-scale allied offensives such as Operation Mountain Thrust attaining limited success.[148][149][150]
Iraq
Main article: Iraq War
Beginning with his January 29, 2002 State of the Union address, President Bush began publicly focusing attention on Iraq, which he labeled as part of an "axis of evil" allied with terrorists and posing "a grave and growing danger" to U.S. interests through possession of "weapons of mass destruction".[151] In the latter half of 2002, Central Intelligence Agency reports requested by the administration contained conflicting assertions on whether Saddam Hussein was intent on reconstituting nuclear weapons programs, had not properly accounted for Iraqi biological and chemical weapons, and that some Iraqi missiles had a range greater than allowed by the UN sanctions.[152][153] The question of whether the Bush Administration manipulated or exaggerated the threat and evidence of Iraq's weapons of mass destruction capabilities or attempted to create a tie between Saddam Hussein and al Qaeda attacks would eventually become a major point of criticism and controversy for the president.[154][155] In late 2002 and early 2003, President Bush urged the United Nations to enforce Iraqi disarmament mandates, precipitating a diplomatic crisis. In November 2002, Hans Blix and Mohamed ElBaradei led UN weapons inspectors in Iraq, but were forced to depart Iraq four days prior to the U.S. invasion, despite their requests for more time to complete their tasks.[156] The U.S. initially sought a UN Security Council resolution authorizing the use of military force but dropped the bid for UN approval due to vigorous opposition from several countries.[157]
President Bush, with Naval Flight Officer Lieutenant Ryan Philips, in the flight suit he wore for his televised arrival and speech aboard the USS Abraham Lincoln in 2003.The war effort was joined by more than 20 other nations (most notably the United Kingdom), designated the "coalition of the willing".[158] The invasion of Iraq commenced on March 20, 2003 and the Iraqi military was quickly defeated. Kofi Annan, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, as well as leaders of several nations made statements implying that the attack constituted a war crime.[159] The capital, Baghdad, fell on April 9, 2003. On May 1, 2003, President Bush declared the end of major combat operations in Iraq. The initial success of U.S. operations had increased President Bush's popularity, but the U.S. and allied forces faced a growing insurgency led by sectarian groups. As the situation deteriorated, Bush's May 1, 2003 "Mission Accomplished" speech would be criticized as premature.[160] The Bush Administration was also criticized in subsequent months following the report of the Iraq Survey Group, which did not find the large quantities of weapons that the regime was believed to possess. On December 14, 2005, Bush stated that "It is true that much of the intelligence turned out to be wrong."[161] Bush nevertheless continued to assert the war had been worthwhile and confirmed he would have made the same decision if he had known more.
President Bush shakes hands with Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki.Iraqi elections and a referendum to approve a constitution were held in January and December 2005. From 2004 through 2007, the situation in Iraq deteriorated further, with some observers arguing that the country was engaged in a full scale civil war.[162] Bush's policies regarding the war in Iraq met increasing criticism, with demands within the United States to set a timetable to withdraw troops from Iraq. In 2006 a National Intelligence Estimate asserted that the Iraq war had increased Islamic radicalism and worsened the terror threat.[163] The 2006 report of the bipartisan Iraq Study Group led by James Baker, concluded that the situation in Iraq was "grave and deteriorating". While Bush admitted that there were strategic mistakes made in regards to the stability of Iraq, he maintained he would not change the overall Iraq strategy.[164][165] On January 10, 2007 Bush addressed the U.S. about the situation in Iraq. In his speech he announced the surge of 21,500 more troops for Iraq, as well as a job program for Iraqis, more reconstruction proposals, and US$1.2 billion for these programs.[166] On May 1, 2007, Bush used his veto for only the second time in his presidency, rejecting a congressional bill setting a deadline for the withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq.[167]
North Korea
Main article: United States-North Korea relations
Bush publicly condemned Kim Jong-Il of North Korea, naming North Korea one of three states in an "axis of evil," and saying that "[t]he United States of America will not permit the world's most dangerous regimes to threaten us with the world's most destructive weapons."[168] Within months, "both countries had walked away from their respective commitments under the U.S.-DPRK Agreed Framework of October 1994."[169] North Korea's October 9, 2006 detonation of a nuclear device further complicated Bush's foreign policy, which centered for both terms of his presidency on "[preventing] the terrorists and regimes who seek chemical, biological or nuclear weapons from threatening the United States and the world."[170] Bush condemned North Korea's claims, reaffirmed his commitment to "a nuclear-free Korean Peninsula," and stated that "transfer of nuclear weapons or material by North Korea to states or non-state entities would be considered a grave threat to the United States," for which North Korea would be held accountable.[171] On May 7, 2007, North Korea agreed to shut down its nuclear reactors immediately pending the release of frozen funds held in a foreign bank account. This was a result of a series of three-way talks initiated by the United States and including China.[172] On September 2, 2007, North Korea agreed to disclose and dismantle all of its nuclear programs by the end of 2007.[173]
Assassination attempt
On May 10, 2005, while Bush was giving a speech in the Freedom Square in Tbilisi, Georgia, a live hand grenade was thrown by Vladimir Arutinian towards the podium where he and Georgian President Mikhail Saakashvili were seated. It landed in the crowd about 65 feet (20 m) from the podium after hitting a girl; it did not detonate. Arutinian was arrested in July 2005, confessed, and was convicted and given a life sentence in January 2006.[174]
Midterm dismissal of U.S. attorneys
Main article: Dismissal of U.S. attorneys controversy
During Bush's second term, controversy arose over the Department of Justice's unprecedented midterm dismissal of seven United States Attorneys.[175] The White House maintains the U.S. attorneys were fired due to performance issues.[176] Gonzales would later resign over the issue, along with other senior members of the Justice Department.[177][178] Although Congressional investigations have focused on whether the Department of Justice and the White House were using the U.S. Attorney positions for political advantage, no official findings have been released.
On 29 November 2007, Chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee, Vermont's senior senator, the Democrat Patrick Leahy, stated that there is "significant and uncontroverted evidence that the president had no involvement in these firings." This was a reversal of Leahy's previous demands to know what, if any, role the president played, or knowledge that he had, of the firings.[179]
Criticism and public perception
Main articles: Criticism of George W. Bush and Public perception of George W. Bush
See also: Fictionalized portrayals of George W. Bush
Domestic perceptions
See also: Movement to impeach George W. Bush
Gallup/USA Today Bush public opinion polling from February 2001 to November 2007. Blue denotes "approve", red "disapprove", and yellow "unsure". Large increases in approval followed the September 11 attacks, the beginning of the 2003 Iraq conflict, and the capture of Saddam Hussein.Bush began his presidency with approval ratings near 50 percent;[180] following the September 11, 2001 attacks, Bush gained an approval rating of greater than 85 percent, maintaining 80–90 percent approval for four months after the attacks. Since then, his approval ratings and approval of his handling of domestic and foreign policy issues have steadily dropped. Bush has received heavy criticism for his handling of the Iraq War, his response to Hurricane Katrina, and to the Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse, NSA warrantless surveillance of terrorists or individuals suspected of involvement with terrorist groups, Scooter Libby, and Guantanamo Bay detainment camp controversies.[181] Additionally, critics have decried his frequent use of signing statements, contending that they are unconstitutional.[182] The decision of Rep. John Conyers (D-MI) the House Judiciary Chair to hold hearings on Bush’s use of “signing statements”, has been hailed by the president’s critics as a step towards impeachment.[183]
In the 2004 elections, 95–98 percent of the Republican electorate approved of him. This support waned, however, due mostly to Republicans' growing frustration with Bush on the issues of spending and illegal immigration. Some Republican leaders began criticizing Bush on his policies in Iraq, Iran, and the Palestinian Territories.[184] Bush's approval rating has been below the 50 percent mark in AP-Ipsos polling since December 2004.[185]
Polls conducted in 2006 showed an average of 37 percent approval ratings for Bush;[186] the lowest for any second term president in this point of term since Harry Truman in March 1951, when his approval rating was 28 percent,[185][187] which contributed to what Bush called the "thumping" of the GOP in the 2006 mid-term elections.[188] In the average of major polls Bush's approval rating was, as of September 25, 2007, 33.8 percent.[189] In a Newsweek poll of June 21, 2007, Bush received an approval rate of 26 percent, the lowest point of his presidency, and the second lowest of any president in the last thirty five years, second only to Richard Nixon's record low of 23 percent, seven months before he resigned from office.[190][191]
Calls for the impeachment of Bush have been made by various groups and individuals, with their reasons usually centering on the NSA warrantless surveillance controversy,[192] the Bush administration's justification for the war in Iraq,[193] and violations of the Geneva Conventions.[194] Opinion polling has shown that about half of Americans would support impeaching Bush if it was found that he had lied about the reasons for the war in Iraq.[195] In a July 2007 poll, a plurality of registered voters favored the House of Representatives beginning impeachment proceedings against Bush.[196] The same poll shows that a plurality of all adults oppose such actions.[196]
Bush's intellectual capacities have been questioned by the news media,[197] as well as other politicians.[198][199] Detractors tended to cite the various linguistic errors made by Bush during his public speeches, which are colloquially known as Bushisms.[200]
Activist and filmmaker Michael Moore released Fahrenheit 9/11 in 2004, making a plethora of accusations against Bush, most notably using public sentiments following 9/11 for political purposes, financial connections between the Bush family and the prominent Saudi Arabian families such as the royal family and the bin Laden family, and lying about the cause for war in Iraq. In 2000 and again in 2004, Time magazine named George W. Bush as its Person of the Year, a title awarded to someone who, "for better or for worse, … has done the most to influence the events of the year."[201][202] In 2006, Rolling Stone magazine featured an article by historian Sean Wilentz contending Bush is one of the worst presidents in American history.[203][204]
On November 14, 2007, President Bush topped the annual Film Threat Frigid 50 list of Hollywood's coldest people. President Bush was cited because of the large number of hostile film and television programs that criticized his presidency, and because of the excess number of documentaries that called his domestic and foreign policy judgments into question. "With all due respect to Hollywood, the mighty W is as much a cinema celebrity as the next despotic tyrant," said Film Threat, adding: "President George W. Bush has been a fixture on the big and small screens for the length of his historically tragic run."[205]
Foreign perceptions
President Pervez Musharraf of Pakistan and United States President George W. Bush respond to reporters during a joint press conference in the East Room of the White House in late 2006.Bush has been widely criticized internationally; he was targeted by the global anti-war and anti-globalization campaigns, and criticized for his foreign policy in general. Bush's policies were also the subject of heated criticism in the 2002 elections in Germany and the 2006 elections in Canada.[206][207] Bush was openly condemned by current and former international leaders such as Gerhard Schr?der, Jean Chrétien, Mohammad Khatami, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, Romano Prodi, Paul Martin, and particularly Hugo Chávez. Later in Bush's presidency, tensions arose between himself and Vladimir Putin, which has led to a cooling of their relationship.[208]
Bush has been described as having especially close personal relationships with Tony Blair and Vicente Fox, although formal relations are sometimes strained.[209][210][211]
In 2006, a majority of respondents in 18 of 21 countries surveyed around the world were found to hold an unfavorable opinion of Bush. Respondents indicated that they judged his administration as "negative" for world security.[212][213] A poll conducted in Britain named Bush the second biggest "threat to world peace" after bin Laden, beating North Korean leader Kim Jong-Il.[214] According to a poll taken in November 2006, Finns also believed that Bush was the biggest "threat to world peace" after bin Laden. Kim Jong-Il came in third in the poll and Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Hassan Nasrallah tied for fourth.[215]
A March 2007 survey of Arab opinion conducted by Zogby International and the University of Maryland found that George W. Bush is the most disliked leader in the Arab world. More than three times as many respondents registered their dislike for Bush as for the second most unpopular leader, Ariel Sharon.[216] According to a 2006 poll conducted by the Iraq Center for Research and Strategic studies, a majority of Iraqis believe that the U.S. has lost its global credibility as a result of Bush's foreign policies.[217]
The Pew Research Center's 2007 Global Attitudes poll found that out of 47 countries, only respondents from Israel and some sub-Saharan countries expressed "a lot" or "some" confidence in George W. Bush more than 50% of the time. Of European respondents surveyed, Italy and the Czech Republic expressed 30% or greater confidence in Bush.[218]
During a June 2007 visit to Albania Bush was greeted with a "rockstar reception" as the Albanian people cheered, shook his hands, and kissed his cheeks. A commemorative stamp was issued for the occasion. Albanian prime minister, Sali Berisha commented that Bush "was [the] greatest and most distinguished guest we have ever had in all times." Albania has troops in both Iraq and Afghanistan and the country's government is highly supportive of American foreign policy.[219] Along with the "hero's welcome" a huge image of the President now hangs in the middle of the capital city of Tirana flanked by Albanian and American flags.[220]
Electoral history
Republican Texas gubernatorial primary, 1994[221]
George W. Bush - 520,130 (93.32%)
Ray Hollis - 37,210 (6.68%)
Texas gubernatorial election, 1994[222]
George W. Bush (R) - 2,350,994 (53.48%)
Ann Richards (D) (inc.) - 2,016,928 (45.88%)
Keary Ehlers (Lib.) - 28,320 (0.64%)
Republican Texas gubernatorial primary, 1998[223]
George W. Bush (inc.) - 576,528 (96.60%)
R.C. Crawford - 20,311 (3.40%)
Texas gubernatorial election, 1998[224]
George W. Bush (R) (inc.) - 2,550,821 (68.24%)
Garry Mauro (D) - 1,165,592 (31.18%)
Lester Turlington (Lib.) - 20,711 (0.55%)
Susan Lee Solar (write-in) - 954 (0.03%)
United States presidential election, 2000 (Republican primaries)[225]:
George W. Bush - 12,034,676 (62.00%)
John McCain - 6,061,332 (31.23%)
Alan Keyes - 985,819 (5.08%)
Steve Forbes - 171,860 (0.89%)
Unpledged - 61,246 (0.32%)
Gary Bauer - 60,709 (0.31%)
Orrin Hatch - 15,958 (0.08%)
Al Gore (write-in) - 1,155 (0.01%)
Bill Bradley (write-in) - 1,025 (0.01%)
United States presidential election, 2000
George W. Bush/Dick Cheney (R) - 50,460,110 (47.9%) and 271 electoral votes (30 states carried)
Al Gore/Joe Lieberman (D) - 51,003,926 (48.4%) and 266 electoral votes (20 states and D.C. carried)
Abstaining - 1 electoral vote (faithless elector from D.C.)
Ralph Nader/Winona LaDuke (Green) - 2,883,105 (2.7%)
Pat Buchanan/Ezola B. Foster (Reform) - 449,225 (0.4%)
Harry Browne/Art Olivier (Libertarian) - 384,516 (0.4%)
Howard Phillips/Curtis Frazier (Constitution) - 98,022 (0.1%)
John Hagelin/Nat Goldhaber (Natural Law) - 83,702 (0.1%)
United States presidential election, 2004
George W. Bush/Dick Cheney (R) (inc.) - 62,040,610 (50.7%) and 286 electoral votes (31 states carried)
John Kerry/John Edwards (D) - 59,028,111 (48.3%) and 251 electoral votes (19 states and D.C. carried)
John Edwards (D) - 1 electoral vote (faithless elector from Minnesota)
See also
Bush family
Bushism
George W. Bush legislation and programs
List of Presidents of the United States
Presidential nicknames for Bush
References
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^ Presidential Job Approval for Richard Nixon. The American Presidency Project. Retrieved on 2007-09-16.
^ John W. Dean (2005-12-30). George W. Bush as the New Richard M. Nixon: Both Wiretapped Illegally, and Impeachably. Retrieved on 2007-04-14.
^ Robert Scheer (2003-07-18). A Firm Basis for Impeachment. AlterNet. Retrieved on 2007-04-14.
^ Matthew Rothschild (2006-03-08). Grounds for Impeachment. CommonDreams.org. Retrieved on 2007-04-14.
^ David Swanson (2005-10-11). Poll: Americans Favor Bush's Impeachment If He Lied about Iraq. AfterDowningStreet. Retrieved on 2007-04-14.
^ a b Do you favor or oppose the US House of Representatives beginning impeachment proceedings against President George W. Bush?. American Research Group. Retrieved on 2007-07-05.
^ Baker, Peter (2006-08-20). Pundits Renounce The President. Washington Post. Retrieved on 2006-09-11.
^ Walters, Simon (2006-08-19). Blair 'feels betrayed by Bush on Lebanon'. Daily Mail. Retrieved on 2006-09-11.
^ Bush gets bad rap on intelligence. St. Cloud Times Online (January 14, 2001). Retrieved on 2006-10-09.
^ Jacob Weisberg (November 4, 2000). Bush, in his own words. Guardian Unlimited. Retrieved on 2006-10-09.
^ Person of the Year President George W. Bush American Revolutionary. TIME Magazine (2004). Retrieved on 2006-09-09.
^ And the Winner Finally Is … George W. Bush. TIME Magazine (2000). Retrieved on 2006-09-09.
^ The Worst President in History. Rolling Stone (2006). Retrieved on 2007-05-18.
^ Defending the home front. The Australian (2007). Retrieved on 2007-07-14.
^ FILM THREAT'S FRIGID 50: THE COLDEST PEOPLE IN HOLLYWOOD 2007. Film Threat (2007-11-14). Retrieved on 2007-07-14.
^ M. Overhaus, S. Schieder (2002). "Die au?enpolitischen Positionen der Parteien im Bundestagswahlkampf 2002" (in German). Politik im Netz.
^ CBC News. "Was the American ambassador meddling in a Canadian election?", CBC.ca Reality Check Team, 2005-12-14. Retrieved on 2006-09-23.
^ Condon, George E. Jr. (2006-07-21). Bush, White House now leery of Putin as Russian turns back on democracy. San Diego Union Tribune. Retrieved on 2006-09-09.
^ Keeping the U.S. at Bay, Mexican Presidential Candidate Looks to Move Past Fox's Failures Marcela Sanchez (March 3, 2006).
^ Mexico's President Snubs Bush, Vicente Fox Cancels Visit To Bush Ranch To Protest Execution (August 15, 2002).
^ Row over Bush security as Blair defends visit Ewen MacAskill, Hugh Muir, and Julian Borger in Washington, The Guardian (November 11, 2003).
^ In 18 of 21 Countries Polled, Most See Bush’s Reelection as Negative for World Security. BBC World Service and Program on International Policy Attitudes (2004). Retrieved on 2006-09-24.
^ Polls: World Not Pleased With Bush. Associated Press (March 4, 2004). Retrieved on 2006-09-24.
^ British believe Bush is more dangerous than Kim Jong-il
^ He uhkaavat maailman turvallisuutta (They threaten world peace) (Finnish). Iltalehti (2006-11-11). Retrieved on 2006-11-11.
^ Peter Kiernan (March 1, 2007), Middle East Opinion: Iran Fears Aren't Hitting the Arab Street, World Politics Review Exclusive, <>http://worldpoliticsreview.com/Article.a...
^ Public Opinion Survey in Iraq (November 2006). Retrieved on 2007-06-08.
^ Pew Global Attitudes Project: Spring 2007, Survey of 47 Publics, Final 2007 Comparative Topline. Pew Research Center (June 27, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-07-17.
^ Bush greeted as hero in Albania. BBC (June 10, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-12-16.
^ Bush Gets Warm Reception in Albania. NPR (June 10, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-12-16.
^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.h...
^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.h...
^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.h...
^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.h...
^ http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.h...
External links
Find more information on George W. Bush by searching Wikipedia's sister projects
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Learning resources from Wikiversity
Official White House web site
Official White House biography
Republican National Committee biography
Comprehensive Presidential profile by Nicholas D. Kristof
Project Vote Smart information
Extensive essay on George W. Bush and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs
George W. Bush at the Internet Movie Database
Political offices
Preceded by
Ann Richards Governor of Texas
January 17, 1995 – December 21, 2000 Succeeded by
Rick Perry
Preceded by
Bill Clinton President of the United States
January 20, 2001 – present Incumbent
Preceded by
Jacques Chirac
France Chair of the G8
2004 Succeeded by
Tony Blair
United Kingdom
Party political offices
Preceded by
Bob Dole Republican Party presidential candidate
2000, 2004 Most recent
Order of precedence in the United States of America
First United States order of precedence
The President of the United States
January 20, 2001 – present Succeeded by
Dick Cheney
Vice President of the United States
Honorary titles
Preceded by
Jeffrey P. Bezos Time's Person of the Year
2000 Succeeded by
Rudolph Giuliani
Preceded by
The American Soldier Time's Person of the Year
2004 Succeeded by
The Good Samaritans:
Bono, Bill Gates, and Melinda Gates
[show]v ? d ? eGeorge W. Bush
Family Bush family · Laura Bush (spouse) · George H. W. Bush (father) · Barbara Bush (mother) · Jenna Bush (daughter) · Barbara Bush (daughter) · Barney (dog) · Miss Beazley (dog) · India (cat)
Life A Charge to Keep · Early life · Military service controversy · Professional life · Insider trading allegations · Religious faith · Substance abuse controversy · Pretzel incident · Nicknames
Politics Governorship of Texas · Presidency (2000 campaign · First Term · Cabinet · Iraq War · 2004 campaign · Second Term · White House shakeup · Executive Orders · Pardons · Library)
Policies Compassionate conservatism · Domestic policy · Economic policy · Foreign policy · Bush Doctrine · Legislation and programs
Perceptions Public perception · Bushisms · Controversy · Criticism · Impeachment movement · Fictionalized portrayals · As the subject of books and films
[show]v ? d ? ePresidents of the United States of America
George Washington · John Adams · Thomas Jefferson · James Madison · James Monroe · John Quincy Adams · Andrew Jackson · Martin Van Buren · William Henry Harrison · John Tyler · James K. Polk · Zachary Taylor · Millard Fillmore · Franklin Pierce · James Buchanan · Abraham Lincoln · Andrew Johnson · Ulysses S. Grant · Rutherford B. Hayes · James A. Garfield · Chester A. Arthur · Grover Cleveland · Benjamin Harrison · Grover Cleveland · William McKinley · Theodore Roosevelt · William Howard Taft · Woodrow Wilson · Warren G. Harding · Calvin Coolidge · Herbert Hoover · Franklin D. Roosevelt · Harry S. Truman · Dwight D. Eisenhower · John F. Kennedy · Lyndon B. Johnson · Richard Nixon · Gerald Ford · Jimmy Carter · Ronald Reagan · George H. W. Bush · Bill Clinton · George W. Bush
[show]v ? d ? eUnited States Republican Party Presidential Nominees
John C. Frémont · Abraham Lincoln · Ulysses S. Grant · Rutherford B. Hayes · James A. Garfield · James G. Blaine · Benjamin Harrison · William McKinley · Theodore Roosevelt · William Howard Taft · Charles Evans Hughes · Warren G. Harding · Calvin Coolidge · Herbert Hoover · Alf Landon · Wendell Willkie · Thomas E. Dewey · Dwight D. Eisenhower · Richard Nixon · Barry Goldwater · Richard Nixon · Gerald Ford · Ronald Reagan · George H. W. Bush · Bob Dole · George W. Bush
[show]v ? d ? eGovernors of Texas
J. P. Henderson ? Wood ? Bell ? J. W. Henderson ? Pease ? Runnels ? Houston ? Clark ? Lubbock ? Murrah ? Hamilton ? Throckmorton ? Pease ? Davis ? Coke ? Hubbard ? Roberts ? Ireland ? Ross ? Hogg ? Culberson ? Sayers ? Lanham ? Campbell ? Colquitt ? J. Ferguson ? Hobby ? Neff ? M. Ferguson ? Moody ? Sterling ? M. Ferguson ? Allred ? O'Daniel ? Stevenson ? Jester ? Shivers ? Daniel ? Connally ? Smith ? Briscoe ? Clements ? White ? Clements ? Richards ? Bush ? Perry
[show]v ? d ? eG8 Leaders
Stephen Harper · Nicolas Sarkozy · Angela Merkel · Romano Prodi · Yasuo Fukuda · Vladimir Putin · Gordon Brown · George Bush
[show]v ? d ? eCurrent members of the United States Cabinet
Bodman · Boltenc · Bushc · Chao · Cheneyc · Chertoff · Connera · Gates · Gutierrez · Jackson · Johnsonc · Kempthorne · Leavitt · Mukasey · Paulson · Peake · Peters · Nusslec · Rice · Schwabc · Spellings · Waltersc
(c) cabinet-level only, (a) acting
[show]v ? d ? eCabinet of President George W. Bush (2001-Present)
Vice President Dick Cheney (2001-Present)
Secretary of State Colin Powell (2001-2005) ? Condoleezza Rice (2005-Present)
Secretary of the Treasury Paul O'Neill (2001-2002) ? John W. Snow (2002-2006) ? Henry Paulson (2006-Present)
Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld (2001-2006) ? Robert Gates (2006-Present)
Attorney General John Ashcroft (2001-2005) ? Alberto Gonzales (2005-2007) ? Michael Mukasey (2007-Present)
Secretary of the Interior Gale Norton (2001-2006) ? Dirk Kempthorne (2006-Present)
Secretary of the Agriculture Ann Veneman (2001-2005) ? Mike Johanns (2005-2007)
Secretary of Commerce Donald Evans (2001-2005) ? Carlos Gutierrez (2005-Present)
Secretary of Labor Elaine Chao (2001-Present)
Secretary of Health and Human Services Tommy Thompson (2001-2005) ? Michael Leavitt (2005-Present)
Secretary of Education Rod Paige (2001-2005) ? Margaret Spellings (2005-Present)
Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Mel Martinez (2001-2003) ? Alphonso Jackson (2003-Present)
Secretary of Transportation Norman Mineta (2001-2006) ? Mary Peters (2006-Present)
Secretary of Energy Spencer Abraham (2001-2005) ? Samuel Bodman (2005-Present)
Secretary of Veterans Affairs Anthony Principi (2001-2005) ? Jim Nicholson (2005-2007) ? James Peake (2007-)
Secretary of Homeland Security Tom Ridge (2003-2005) ? Michael Chertoff (2005-Present)
Persondata
NAME Bush, George Walker
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Bush, George, Jr.; Bush Jr.
SHORT DESCRIPTION 43rd President of the United States
DATE OF BIRTH July 6, 1946
PLACE OF BIRTH New Haven, Connecticut
DATE OF DEATH
PLACE OF DEATH
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_W._...
Categories: Semi-protected | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements since November 2007 | Articles with unsourced quotes | Presidents of the United States | 1946 births | 2004 U.S. presidential election controversy and irregularities | American cheerleaders | American Methodists | American sports businesspeople | Bonesmen | Bush family | Children of Presidents of the United States | Converts to Methodism | Current national leaders | George W. Bush | Governors of Texas | Harvard Business School alumni | Harvard University alumni | Living people | People from Midland, Texas | People from New Haven, Connecticut | Recipients of the Star of Romania Order | Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees | Texas Rangers | Texas Republicans | Time magazine Persons of the Year | United States Air Force officers | United States presidential candidates, 2000 | Yale University alumni
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